What are Power Units? | F1 Explained

Understanding the Basics: What is an F1 Power Unit?

An F1 power unit is the term used to describe the highly advanced hybrid engine system that powers modern Formula 1 cars. Introduced in 2014 as part of a move toward sustainability and efficiency, it replaced the traditional V8 engines with a complex yet groundbreaking combination of internal combustion engines and hybrid components.

The power unit consists of six distinct components, each serving a specific purpose to ensure peak performance:

1. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE): This is a 1.6-liter, turbocharged V6 engine operating at up to 15,000 RPM. The ICE is the core component, generating power through conventional fuel combustion.

2. Turbocharger (TC): The turbocharger compresses air entering the combustion chamber, increasing efficiency and power output without increasing engine size.

3. Motor Generator Unit - Heat (MGU-H): Connected to the turbocharger, this component recovers heat energy from exhaust gases and converts it into electrical energy that can either be stored or used immediately.

4. Motor Generator Unit - Kinetic (MGU-K): This recovers kinetic energy generated during braking, converting it into electrical energy to power the car or charge the battery.

5. Energy Store (ES): Commonly referred to as the battery, it stores the electrical energy recovered by the MGU-H and MGU-K for deployment during acceleration or overtaking.

6. Control Electronics (CE): These systems (software and hardware) manage the distribution of energy and ensure the components operate optimally under varying conditions.

The hybrid nature of the power unit delivers a balance of raw combustion power and electrical efficiency. This combination not only enhances performance but also reduces fuel consumption by approximately 35%, aligning the sport with modern environmental standards. Thanks to these innovations, the current F1 power unit represents a harmony of engineering excellence and eco-conscious design principles.

A Brief History of Power Units in Formula 1

The evolution of power units in Formula 1 spans decades of technological innovation, regulation changes, and engineering mastery. Formula 1's inaugural season in 1950 featured naturally aspirated engines, with inline and V-shaped configurations dominating early designs. These engines, typically displacing 1.5 to 4.5 liters, relied purely on mechanical ingenuity, producing relatively modest power by modern standards. This era laid the groundwork for the pursuit of speed that defines the sport.

The 1960s brought the first major powertrain breakthrough with the introduction of smaller, lightweight 1.5-liter V8 engines, such as the highly successful Climax powerplant. By the mid-1960s, new regulations allowed engines to double their displacement to three liters, ushering in iconic V12 and V8 engines. Advancements in fuel and material technology during this period led to increasing reliability and power outputs.

The true power explosion began in the late 1970s, when Formula 1 embraced turbocharged engines. These power units, bolstered by forced induction, achieved mind-boggling outputs of over 1,000 horsepower during qualifying in the 1980s. However, controversies around safety and cost control prompted the FIA to eventually ban turbos by the end of the decade, transitioning back to naturally aspirated 3.5-liter engines in 1989.

In the 21st century, the sport increasingly prioritized efficiency and sustainability. The 2014 season marked a watershed moment with the introduction of 1.6-liter V6 turbo hybrid power units. Combining traditional internal combustion with sophisticated energy recovery systems, these units represent Formula 1's commitment to reducing its environmental impact while pushing the boundaries of performance. The ongoing evolution of hybrid power units continues to shape the identity of the sport.

Components of a Modern Formula 1 Power Unit

A modern Formula 1 power unit represents an advanced blend of cutting-edge engineering and hybrid technology. It is not a single engine but a collection of highly integrated components working in unison. These components are designed to maximize performance, efficiency, and reliability. Each part plays a distinct role, contributing to the overall complexity and sophistication of the system. Below is a breakdown of the core components that define a Formula 1 power unit.

1. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

At the heart of the power unit is the 1.6-liter turbocharged V6 internal combustion engine. This highly efficient engine powers the car by directly burning fuel and air to generate mechanical energy. It operates at speeds exceeding 15,000 revolutions per minute (RPM) and is designed for minimal energy waste, ensuring peak performance in high-stress environments.

2. Motor Generator Unit-Heat (MGU-H)

The MGU-H captures energy from the heat of exhaust gases released by the turbocharger. This harvested energy can either be stored in the energy storage system or directly used to spin the turbocharger, reducing lag and improving throttle response. The MGU-H is a crucial hybrid component, enhancing energy efficiency.

3. Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K)

The MGU-K recovers energy during braking by converting kinetic energy into electrical power. It works similarly to regenerative braking systems in road cars but operates at far greater efficiency. This recovered energy is stored and redeployed to deliver additional power to the ICE.

4. Energy Store (ES)

The energy store, usually a lightweight lithium-ion battery, acts as the central hub for accumulated electrical energy. It stores energy harvested by the MGU-H and MGU-K, releasing it strategically to boost performance during high-demand scenarios.

5. Turbocharger

The turbocharger compresses incoming air into the ICE, allowing for better combustion efficiency. It significantly increases power output by exploiting the otherwise wasted exhaust gases and feeding the ICE with a higher air volume.

6. Control Electronics (CE)

Control electronics manage the interactions between all power unit components and the car’s systems. They play a critical role in optimizing energy deployment, balancing performance demands, and ensuring reliability under extreme operating conditions.

These components work together seamlessly, integrating internal combustion engines with sophisticated hybrid technology to create a highly efficient, powerful system optimized for the demands of Formula 1 racing.

The Role of the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

The Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) serves as the cornerstone of an F1 power unit, playing a pivotal role in delivering the immense power required for race performance. As one of the most prominent components, the ICE directly generates a majority of the total energy used by the car. It operates by burning a specifically formulated fuel blend, primarily based on sustainable sources, to drive pistons within its cylinders, which, in turn, power the crankshaft.

Modern ICEs in Formula 1 represent marvels of engineering, operating at up to 15,000 revolutions per minute (RPM) and producing power outputs in excess of 700 horsepower. These engines are highly efficient compared to conventional road car engines, with thermal efficiency exceeding 50%, a feat that has pushed the limits of mechanical and thermodynamic design. Their compact size and lightweight build further enhance the overall aerodynamic and weight balance of the car.

In an F1 engine, energy is released through controlled explosions of the fuel-air mix inside the cylinders. This mechanical process demands precision timing, managed by complex electronic control systems, to maximize performance while ensuring reliability. The V6 turbo-hybrid ICEs used since 2014 are designed to integrate seamlessly with advanced hybrid components, making them highly adaptable for energy recovery purposes.

The ICE works in conjunction with other hybrid elements, such as the MGU-K and MGU-H, to reclaim energy from braking or exhaust gases, creating an interconnected system that optimizes energy usage. By functioning as the mechanical heart of the system while enabling hybrid synergy, the ICE continues to exemplify cutting-edge automotive technology in Formula 1.

Understanding the Energy Recovery System (ERS)

The Energy Recovery System, or ERS, plays a crucial role in modern Formula 1 power units, enhancing both performance and efficiency. It is an integral hybrid component that recovers and stores energy, allowing teams to maximize the car's speed and reduce fuel consumption simultaneously. The ERS is built on two key technologies, both of which are designed to capture waste energy that would otherwise be lost during a race.

The first sub-component is the Motor Generator Unit - Kinetic (MGU-K). This system harvests energy that is generated when the car brakes. During deceleration, the MGU-K converts kinetic energy into electrical energy, which is stored in the car's energy storage unit, often referred to as the battery. This energy can later be deployed to enhance acceleration, providing an additional boost of up to 120 kilowatts (approximately 160 horsepower).

The second sub-component is the Motor Generator Unit - Heat (MGU-H). This device recovers thermal energy from the car’s turbocharger. As the exhaust gases spin the turbo, the MGU-H captures the excess heat and converts it into electrical energy. Unlike the MGU-K, the MGU-H can directly supply power to the car's electric systems or work in tandem with the MGU-K to aid in energy deployment.

These components are part of a closed-loop system designed to improve efficiency. Drivers can utilize this additional power strategically during overtakes or to defend their position. The ERS is governed by specific rules, such as the maximum energy deployment of 4 megajoules per lap and limited energy storage capacity, ensuring a level playing field.

Through ERS, Formula 1 demonstrates how cutting-edge energy recovery can revolutionize automotive technology while meeting strict performance and sustainability demands.

How Turbochargers Transform F1 Performance

In modern Formula 1, turbochargers play a pivotal role in amplifying engine performance while maintaining efficiency. These devices, first introduced in F1 during the 1970s, have undergone significant innovation, aligning with the sport’s push for more sustainable and efficient power units. Turbochargers, often referred to as “turbos,” allow internal combustion engines to generate more power by compressing air that enters the engine’s cylinders.

At their core, turbochargers function by utilizing exhaust gases, a byproduct of combustion, to drive a turbine connected to a compressor. As the exhaust spins the turbine, the compressor draws in and compresses greater amounts of air into the engine, facilitating more oxygen-rich combustion. This process boosts the engine’s horsepower output significantly without increasing its physical size. For F1 teams, this compact and lightweight solution maximizes performance within the strict design and weight regulations of the sport.

One of the strongest impacts of turbocharging in F1 is its efficiency gains. Unlike naturally aspirated engines, turbos allow power units to extract more energy from the same amount of fuel. Teams benefit from this improved fuel efficiency, which is crucial in a sport where every kilogram of fuel impacts car weight and lap times.

Additionally, turbochargers enhance performance across a wide range of engine speeds. They minimize the lag between driver throttle input and engine response, which is critical when navigating high-speed straights and technical corners. Combined with advanced hybrid energy recovery systems, turbos create a seamless blend of power and sustainability—factors that are vital in the era of cutting-edge Formula 1 technology.

Hybrid Technology: Revolutionizing Formula 1 Power

Hybrid technology has transformed Formula 1, fundamentally altering how power units generate and deliver energy on the track. Since its introduction in 2014, this groundbreaking advancement has pushed the limits of engineering and efficiency, ushering in a new era of high-performance racing. A modern Formula 1 hybrid power unit integrates a traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) with cutting-edge energy recovery systems, creating a powerful and sustainable package.

At the core of the hybrid system is the 1.6-liter V6 turbocharged ICE, which remains the primary source of energy. However, what sets these power units apart are the Energy Recovery Systems (ERS), allowing previously wasted energy to be stored and reused. Two primary components make up the ERS: the Motor Generator Unit-Heat (MGU-H) and the Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K). The MGU-H recovers heat energy from the turbocharger, while the MGU-K captures kinetic energy from braking. Together, they provide an extra boost of electrical power to the engine, enhancing overall performance.

This dual-approach system not only maximizes energy efficiency but also delivers up to 160 horsepower of additional output. Energy storage is achieved through advanced lithium-ion batteries, enabling energy harvested by the ERS to be deployed strategically during a race. The hybrid system ensures seamless transitions between mechanical and electrical power, offering drivers superior acceleration and control.

Beyond its impact on speed, hybrid technology has played a pivotal role in reducing the carbon footprint of Formula 1. With fuel efficiency improved by over 30% compared to previous eras, these power units highlight the sport's commitment to sustainability without compromising competitive intensity. This fusion of innovation and tradition exemplifies Formula 1’s position at the forefront of technological evolution.

Power Units vs Engines: What’s the Difference?

In Formula 1, power units and engines are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably, leading to confusion. However, they refer to distinct concepts in the modern era of motorsport. Understanding their differences provides insight into the complexities of F1 technology.

A traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) is a single component designed to convert fuel into mechanical energy, which drives the car’s wheels. Historically, engines were the sole source of power for Formula 1 cars, relying on raw mechanical output to achieve speed. These engines were often classified by their displacement, number of cylinders, or fuel delivery systems. While immensely powerful, they lacked the efficiency measures introduced in modern racing.

In contrast, a power unit refers to a more integrated and complex system. Introduced in Formula 1 in 2014, power units encompass multiple elements that work together to optimize performance while prioritizing energy efficiency. The modern F1 power unit consists of the internal combustion engine, but it also incorporates hybrid components such as:

• MGU-K (Motor Generator Unit - Kinetic): Captures energy during braking and redeploys it as additional power.

• MGU-H (Motor Generator Unit - Heat): Harvests energy from exhaust gases to improve efficiency.

• Energy Store (Battery): Stores electrical energy for redistribution during racing.

• Turbocharger: Increases air intake into the ICE, enhancing combustion efficiency.

This combination makes the power unit not just a source of propulsion but a sophisticated energy recovery system. Unlike a standalone engine, the power unit integrates traditional and hybrid technologies to balance power delivery and fuel efficiency. As regulations evolve, these systems highlight the paradigm shift from solely mechanical engineering to advanced energy management in F1. Through these innovations, power units have revolutionized Formula 1, placing efficiency and sustainability at the forefront.

Technical Insights: How F1 Power Units Deliver Efficiency

Modern Formula 1 power units represent a marvel of engineering, combining raw power with exceptional efficiency. These intricate systems are designed to extract the maximum amount of energy from every drop of fuel while adhering to strict performance and sustainability standards set by the FIA (Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile). Their efficiency stems from a combination of advanced hybrid technology, innovative design, and precision engineering.

At their core, F1 power units comprise several key components: a 1.6-liter turbocharged V6 internal combustion engine (ICE), energy recovery systems (ERS), an energy store (battery), and power control electronics. Each element plays a critical role in ensuring efficiency. The ICE generates mechanical power while a turbocharger recaptures exhaust energy that would otherwise be wasted. This recovered energy is used to compress air entering the engine, improving combustion and delivering additional power.

The ERS further transforms how energy is harvested and utilized. It consists of two subsystems: the Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K) and the Motor Generator Unit-Heat (MGU-H). The MGU-K recovers kinetic energy during braking, while the MGU-H harvests excess thermal energy from the turbocharger. Both systems convert these energy sources into electrical power, which is either stored in the battery or deployed directly to assist the engine during acceleration.

By integrating these systems, power units strike a delicate balance between performance and fuel efficiency. F1 regulations cap fuel usage, allowing no more than 100kg during a race. Power units navigate this limitation by achieving unprecedented thermal efficiency rates—well over 50% in some cases—a milestone unequaled by any other internal combustion-based system.

Highlights of Efficiency in F1 Power Units:

• Turbocharging Technology: Captures and repurposes exhaust energy.

• Energy Recovery Systems: Maximize energy use with MGU-K and MGU-H subsystems.

• Lightweight Materials: Minimize mass for greater overall efficiency.

• Advanced Monitoring Systems: Enable precise energy management and optimization.

These sophisticated systems showcase how F1 continues to push the boundaries of energy efficiency, setting benchmarks for automotive innovation globally.

The Influence of Regulations on Power Unit Development

The development of Formula 1 power units is heavily influenced by a complex web of regulations designed to balance innovation, cost management, and competition. These regulations, introduced by the FIA (Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile), serve as a framework that teams must adhere to, shaping the technical and operational aspects of engine design.

One of the most significant aspects of regulation is the introduction of displacement and component limits. For example, current rules require power units to consist of a 1.6-liter V6 turbocharged internal combustion engine paired with energy recovery systems, integrating both mechanical and electrical elements. These restrictions ensure that teams innovate within defined boundaries, preventing runaway costs and creating a level playing field.

Additionally, fuel flow limits and thermal efficiency requirements challenge engineers to create more sustainable and efficient powertrains. The FIA caps the maximum fuel flow, which forces engineers to extract greater performance from less fuel. This has pushed the boundaries of thermal efficiency, with some modern F1 power units exceeding 50%, a remarkable feat compared to conventional engines.

The number of engines and components that teams can use over a season is also tightly regulated. Teams are limited to a set number of internal combustion engines and hybrid components, such as the MGU-K (Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic) and MGU-H (Motor Generator Unit-Heat). Exceeding these limits leads to grid penalties, incentivizing reliability alongside performance.

Finally, emissions concerns have fostered an increasing focus on hybrid technology. The current hybrid power unit formula not only aligns F1 with global automotive trends but also drives research and development applicable to road cars. Transitioning to synthetic fuels and future engine formats remains a priority, ensuring F1 adapts to environmental demands. These regulatory shifts simultaneously spur innovation while keeping F1 aligned with broader sustainable goals.

Environmental Impact and Future of F1 Power Units

Formula 1 power units play a critical role in shaping the sport’s environmental footprint, as attention shifts toward sustainability and cleaner technology. Current power units, known as hybrid systems, combine internal combustion engines (ICE) with energy recovery systems (ERS) to improve efficiency and reduce emissions. While these engines utilize highly efficient turbocharged V6 designs, they still rely partially on fossil fuels, contributing to carbon output. Consequently, discussions about F1’s environmental impact have gained intensity in recent years.

In response to increasing pressure, Formula 1 has committed to achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2030. The introduction of synthetic and advanced biofuels is a pivotal strategy in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from power units. From the 2026 season, FIA regulations will mandate the use of 100% sustainable fuels, designed to work in tandem with improved engine efficiencies. This shift signifies Formula 1’s attempt to lead innovation while aligning with global sustainability goals.

Future advancements in energy recovery systems also hold significant promise. Current systems capture waste heat through the MGU-H (Motor Generator Unit-Heat) and kinetic energy through the MGU-K (Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic) during braking and exhaust heat generation. While already revolutionary, upcoming systems could further enhance energy recovery and promote electric motor integration.

As the sport evolves, balancing high performance with environmental consciousness remains a key objective. Hybrid technology will likely serve as a bridge toward greener solutions, with collaborative efforts between manufacturers and regulators driving this change. These developments underline Formula 1’s capacity to serve as a testing ground for sustainable automotive innovations.

Challenges Faced by Teams and Manufacturers in Power Unit Design

The development of power units in Formula 1 poses immense challenges for designers, engineers, and manufacturers due to the combination of cutting-edge technology and strict regulatory demands. These challenges stem from various interlocking factors that influence both performance and reliability.

Adapting to Stringent Regulations

Formula 1's governing body imposes strict technical regulations to maintain fairness, safety, and an environmentally conscious approach. Teams must ensure that power units comply with these rules, which often change year-to-year. For instance, fuel efficiency and energy recovery systems require intricate engineering solutions. Balancing compliance with the desire for innovation creates a constant tug-of-war between creativity and restrictions.

Weight and Packaging Constraints

Power units must fit within tight space and weight limits to ensure optimal chassis design and overall car performance. Engineers are challenged to make components lighter without compromising durability. The intricate integration of the internal combustion engine, turbocharger, energy recovery systems, and hybrid battery within the vehicle's design heightens this difficulty.

Thermal Management

Operating temperatures for F1 power units can exceed 1000°F, making thermal management one of the most formidable challenges. Teams must develop advanced cooling systems while keeping aerodynamic efficiency intact. Achieving this balance becomes an ongoing battle during development and race weekends.

Performance and Longevity Balance

Power units must deliver exceptional power output while maintaining reliability across multiple Grand Prix weekends. Per regulations, drivers are limited on the number of power units they can use in a season. Consequently, teams must design components capable of producing maximum horsepower without succumbing to excessive wear or mechanical failure.

Cost Cap Pressure

With the introduction of cost caps in Formula 1, teams face financial constraints while developing highly advanced power units. Ensuring competitive performance while adhering to budgetary limits forces manufacturers to innovate smarter rather than simply pour resources into research.

Each of these hurdles demands precise engineering, innovative solutions, and teamwork, making the power unit a core element in the relentless pursuit of performance on the track.

How Power Units Shape Racing Strategy in Formula 1

Power units play a pivotal role in the strategic decisions teams make during a Formula 1 race. Modern F1 power units are not just about raw horsepower; they are sophisticated, hybrid systems combining an internal combustion engine (ICE), a turbocharger, energy recovery systems (ERS), and an energy store (battery). Each component introduces unique dynamics, directly influencing how teams and drivers approach a race weekend.

One key area where power units shape strategy is resource management. With technical regulations imposing limitations on fuel usage, teams rely on energy recovery systems to harvest and deploy electrical energy efficiently. Drivers must balance conserving the energy stored in the battery with using it for overtaking or defending, often referred to as deploying energy in strategic bursts. The complexity of this system means that power unit modes need to be carefully managed lap by lap.

Cooling requirements for the power unit also affect decisions during a race. High ambient temperatures can strain the system, forcing teams to reduce performance to maintain reliability. Aerodynamic adjustments made for better cooling can influence overall car speed. Drivers are often instructed to modify their driving style to protect the power units from thermal stress, particularly in challenging weather conditions or during intense battles.

Reliability concerns further dictate racing strategies. F1 teams are limited to a certain number of ICEs and ERS components per season. Overusing power units increases the risk of grid penalties, compelling teams to optimize each unit's lifespan. For instance, they may use older power units during practice sessions and save newer ones for high-stakes moments, such as qualifying or crucial races.

Moreover, different power units inherently perform better at specific circuits. Tracks with long straights favor engines with higher top speed potential, while circuits with numerous corners reward superior energy deployment systems. Teams must tailor strategies based on the power unit’s strengths and weaknesses relative to the circuit's characteristics.

Each of these variables creates a complex interplay between technical performance and tactical ingenuity, illustrating just how integral power units have become to Formula 1's strategic landscape. Teams leverage their understanding of these systems to maximize performance, pushing the limits of technology and competition.

The Cost Factor: Building and Maintaining Power Units

Designing, constructing, and maintaining a Formula 1 power unit is an incredibly resource-intensive process, reflecting the sport’s cutting-edge technological demands. These hybrid power units are masterpieces of engineering, blending combustion engines, battery systems, energy recovery technologies, and sophisticated control electronics. The enormous financial implications of developing such advanced machinery profoundly influence teams’ budgets and the overall competitiveness of the sport.

The expenses can broadly be divided into several categories:

1. Research and Development (R&D): Teams invest heavily in R&D to push the boundaries of performance, reliability, and efficiency. Constant advancements in materials, aerodynamics, and hybrid components require specialist facilities, expensive simulation tools, and years of expertise. This phase alone consumes a significant portion of a team’s financial resources.

2. Manufacturing and Assembly: Crafting a power unit involves precision engineering. Exotic materials, such as titanium alloys and carbon fiber composites, are necessary to meet performance and durability requirements while minimizing weight. The complexity of hybrid systems also involves assembling intricate components like MGU-K (Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic) and MGU-H (Motor Generator Unit-Heat), each demanding exacting standards.

3. Testing and Calibration: Before a power unit is deemed race-ready, it undergoes rigorous testing, both on dynamometers and simulation benches. Fine-tuning for different track conditions and optimizing energy efficiency require additional input from engineers and technicians, driving up costs further.

4. Maintenance and Upgrades: Power units must comply with FIA regulations, such as limits on the number of engine components per season. Teams face penalties if limits are exceeded, encouraging robust maintenance and strategic upgrades. Repairs after reliability failures or damage from crashes also add to the financial burden.

The FIA’s cost cap regulations aim to reduce discrepancies between top-budget teams and smaller operations. However, navigating technological challenges under tight financial constraints remains a balancing act for all teams. These financial pressures underscore why power units symbolize not only engineering brilliance but also the business backbone of Formula 1.

Future Innovations: What’s Next for F1 Power Units?

The evolution of F1 power units continues to push technological boundaries, with teams and regulators focusing heavily on efficiency, sustainability, and performance. The next generation of power units, set to debut in 2026, promises to redefine the sport by embracing new engineering innovations aimed at achieving these goals while maintaining the competitive edge Formula 1 is known for.

Key Changes in Upcoming Power Units

1. Increased Reliance on Electric Power The upcoming power units will feature an increase in electrical energy output, highlighting a growing emphasis on hybridization. The motor generator unit-kinetic (MGU-K) is expected to provide significantly more power, doubling the current output. This advancement not only enhances energy recovery but fosters a shift toward a more electric-driven propulsion system.

2. Elimination of the MGU-H To simplify the design and reduce costs, the motor generator unit-heat (MGU-H)—responsible for converting heat energy into electrical energy—will no longer be part of the power unit. This change is aimed at making the technology more attractive to potential new manufacturers, increasing the sport's accessibility.

3. 100% Sustainable Fuels The fuel powering these advanced units will transition to fully sustainable solutions. Derived from non-food biomass or waste products, these fuels promise to significantly reduce the sport’s carbon footprint without sacrificing performance, marking an important step for environmentally conscious racing.

4. Cost-Effective Engineering The 2026 regulations also target cost control. By dictating standardized components, imposing spending caps, and streamlining designs, teams will strive to balance technical innovation with financial sustainability.

Impact Beyond the Track

The innovations in F1 power units are poised to influence the automotive industry at large. Technologies like improved energy recovery systems and sustainable fuels could pave the way for greener, more efficient road cars worldwide.